Discussion

1. Human/Otter conflicts

Both the Indians and the Giant otters are dependent on Kaburi Creek for their food and shelter. The Indians use the creek year around but know, like the otters, that the fishing is particularly good during the dry season. One species does not begrudge fishing by the other but what will happen if the fishing stocks dwindle due to over-fishing and/or pollution? Will the otters then be seen as undesirable competitors that must be eliminated? This has been the attitude towards otters in many parts of the world from salmon fishermen in Scotland to Abalone fishermen in California.

Traditionally, otters in Suriname have not been hunted for their pelt or meat by the people in the interior. The Indians in Washabo have indeed taken special pride in their otters, particularly when they were filmed by the BBC television and appeared in a National Geographic magazine article in 1980. The Indians in Kaburi want to protect their creek in a Nature Reserve and are more than likely to protect "their" otters in the future.

But there are other threats to Kaburi Creek too. Human/otter conflicts involve the results of human activity that degrade the creek habitat.

Permanent human camps are the biggest direct and indirect threat to the Giant otters. Such camps result in 1) increased human presence in prime otter habitat with subsequent loss of otter territories in the first three kilometers of the creek (Table 2), 2) Soil erosion due to land clearing for camps and kitchen gardens and consequent muddying of the water, 3) water pollution due to bathing and washing clothes and dishes with detergent in the creek ­ a twice-daily activity for the Indians.

Fishing and hunting result in 1) increased human presence in prime otter fishing habitat, 2) otter campsite loss when the fishermen build temporary campsites on the banks on or near otter campsites. Otters do not appear to 'take back' these human campsites again. (Table 1 and Table 2)

Logging results in 1) noise pollution of the outboards and chain saws, 2) heavy boat and barge traffic, 3) bank erosion and collapse due to the wave action from large outboard motors and subsequent otter campsite loss.

2. Biodiversity impacts and threats

The factors that affect human/otter conflicts will also affect the biodiversity. Land clearing and increased human presence can only affect the biodiversity negatively. For instance, kingfishers and sungrebes fly ahead and away from boats heading up or down the creek, sometimes for kilometers at a stretch. This must exhaust them and may make them seek quieter creeks elsewhere. Farther, as the hunting of the common species becomes more difficult due to over-hunting, as seen by the recent extirpation of the Muscovy duck, other less common species such as the larger herons and even macaws will be shot. This is a particular threat if more unscrupulous hunters from town 'discover' Kaburi as a good hunting area.

The same is true for the trees in Kaburi that are festooned with bromeliads and orchids, a potential source of income to town residents that know their value. They are there for the taking.

Finally it is the small and rarely seen species that are the most at risk ­ the reptiles, minute birds such as antshrikes and humming birds, insects and leaf litter dwellers. The devastating impact of logging on bird populations has already been studied in Guiana (Thiollay, 1992). Each species is a small link in the chain of biodiversity that makes this creek so special. Clearing the trees and undergrowth for kitchen gardens, campsites and logging will certainly impact many of them.

3. Carib Indian concerns and wishes

The Indians in Washabo have seen development (and its undesirable effects) come and go. During the 1970s, huge plans to develop the Washabo-Apura area into a city of some 60,000 came very close to being realized. A great deal of construction, including a railway, and road-building took place and hundreds of workers arrived from Paramaribo and Nickerie, disrupting their lives.

True, there were jobs for a while but now all that is gone. A small community of these 'immigrants', mostly East Indians, stayed behind in Apura. They live off logging and local commerce including the capture and trade of wildlife and the hunting of bushmeat. The Washabo community, even though only 5 km downstream, has returned to the quiet lifestyle it used to have. The Indians are philosophical and resigned about the promises of jobs and prosperity that never materialized. They feel cut off from the government and the job opportunities in Paramaribo.

Now there is an undercurrent of urgency brewing. Julius Lingaard, a former captain of Washabo, is concerned that Kaburi Creek in under threat. "You must understand, this creek is holy to us," he told me. He remembers the plans to turn the area into a reserve in 1978. "What happened?" he asks. Twenty-two years is a long time to wait when you see your 'holy' place slowly eroding every day. He also bemoans the logging contracts with Guyana that have felled many trees in the creek. He believes that Kaburi will be ruined by greedy outsiders who care little for his 'holy place'.

Of particular concern to Julius was the recent disappearance of the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) from their savannah swamps close to the creek. Long a seasonal staple and favorite food of the Indians, the ducks were shot in the hundreds by hunters from Nickerie, their carcasses often just left to rot. Such a deliberate waste of wildlife was deeply shocking to the Indians. And the loss of a valuable food source was a terrible blow. "Will they come with their nets and take all our fish next?" Julius wonders.

The Indians are getting organized and have created a non-governmental organization, The Warishi Foundation, in April this year. They hope that like other Indian NGOs in Suriname it will serve to represent their interests and put pressure on the government. "We need to do something but will this be enough?" asked Julius. His message conveyed both a sense of hopelessness and urgency. He was willing to accept help from any source as long as it came quickly.

4. Tourism Development

While Kaburi Creek has definite eco-tourism appeal, particularly for otter lovers and bird watchers, new initiatives must be introduced slowly and carefully. Increased human use of the creek has already taken its toll on the wildlife: loss of otter territories, noise pollution, fumes and oil pollution from even small outboard motors, detergent pollution run-off at the human campsites, wood collection and smoke. It all adds up ­ quickly.

Increased human visibility may affect Giant otters negatively, particularly in the early months of cub rearing from August to December. Giant otters in captivity have stopped lactation due to stress after birth or eaten their cubs (Wunnemann, 1992). In Peru, tourism was curbed in Manu National Park during the Giant otter breeding season (Carter & Woods, 1997). While Giant otters in Kaburi are used to seeing Indians paddle by in their small canoes, it is another matter for a motor boat filled with tourists to follow them closely for hours at a time. In 1976-1978 I habituated the otters to my presence and could follow some of them part of the day, but never all. And most of the time I paddled and did not use an outboard motor. Even then some individuals and groups were shyer than others and stayed well away.

When tourists are introduced to Kaburi on a regular basis it will have to be on a closely supervised and regulated basis. At the moment we just do not know what consequences this added presence could have on the otters. We may, at a moment's notice, have to restrict or curtail this activity on the creek in the best interest of the otters.

It may, with time, be possible to habituate some otters to the point where they will be unconcerned with a boat following them. However, if other human activities increase on the creek, such as another new permanent Indian camp or increased fishing, it may not be possible to approach the otters on a regular basis. Over a 4-5 month period trained observers can easily habituate some of the otters. After that it will be possible to introduce tourists and guarantee them a good chance of seeing more than a fleeting glimpse of the otters. Such a habituation process takes time but could be part of an ongoing long-term study of the Giant otters in the creek. It must be remembered that the otters are also capable of recognizing the "good guys" from those they don't know or trust, so habituation need not pose a threat to their ultimate safety. However, once the trust is lost ­ if they are harassed or shot ­ the habituation must be started all over again and that level of trust may never be regained.

Another consideration in developing eco-tourism is the very primitive accommodations for tourists on the creek. A hammock under the tarp with a drop toilet is not for everyone, particularly in a hot, humid and buggy environment. There is no privacy and no comfort. For hours on end you sit on a hard seat as you travel up and down the creek in the hot sun. You may or may not see otters. Only the most fervent otter lovers can put up with these conditions for long.

5. Other problems

Another grave concern is the animal capture and smuggling activities in the creek. First it brings an undesirable element into the creek, people who will exploit all its wildlife for a quick profit until is gone, as they have done elsewhere in Suriname with no concern for laws or local people (Duplaix, 2001). Second, the word may get around, attracting other depredators such as commercial bushmeat hunters. Their activities if unchecked, will have a severe impact on the creek's amazing biodiversity. For it is its fauna and flora that make Kaburi unique.

Unfortunately there are no funds available at present to the LBB Conservation Division to post wildlife rangers to monitor or intervene in these illegal activities. World Wildlife Fund-Suriname plans to launch a TRAFFIC-like operation in the Guianas to monitor the wildlife trade but whether there will be any funds to patrol West Suriname on a regular basis is unlikely.

Help from the government in Paramaribo is doubtful any time soon. Ultimately it will be up to the Indians to patrol their creek and intervene when they see problems ­ already several of them have volunteered to do this including those living permanently on the creek. By nature and tradition they are non-confrontational, preferring to avoid conflict. Perhaps the proposed environmental education programs can stress the importance of defending their creek against unscrupulous outsiders such as wildlife smugglers. For if the Indians don't defend their 'holy place', who will?